Chapter XVI.

Of Justice and Charity toward Our Neighbor.

So much for Religion. Justice follows, which is contained in the Second Table.

1. Justice is a virtue by which we are inclined to perform our duty owed to our neighbor. Thus the duty of children toward their parents is said to be just, Ephesians 6:1. And the duty of masters toward their servants is called right and equitable, Colossians 4:1. All that we owe to our neighbor is fulfilled in living justly.
2. But justice in this context is not taken in its most general sense, as encompassing every duty toward another — for in that sense it would include even religion itself. For the justice called general is nothing other than virtue in general, as was explained earlier when we showed that justice is chief among the general dispositions of virtue. Nor should it be understood in its most narrow sense, concerned only with the quantity of what is deserved or received — for in that case it would cover only a few duties of the Second Table, namely those by which like is returned for like. Rather, justice is here used in a certain middle sense, by which it sets forth the mutual duty between those bound by the same right — and in this sense it contains all the force of the Second Table.
3. Its object is our neighbor, that is, every person — and angel as well — who is or may be with us a partaker of the same end and blessedness, Luke 10:36,37.
4. Hence neither holy persons of whatever rank, nor angels themselves, can be a proper object of religion, or of that religious

religious worship commanded in the First Table, but only of justice, or of that duty owed to our neighbor which is contained in the Second Table. Hence also those arguments drawn from the nature of the thing exclude all adoration of creatures. Acts 10:26: “Rise, for I myself am also a man.” Revelation 22:9: “See that you do not do it, for I am your fellow servant and of your brethren the prophets, and of those who keep the words of this book — worship God.” Revelation 22:9.

5. But within this number and name, every person is proportionally included even with respect to himself; for each person is first a neighbor to himself, and then to others. Hence no special precept is given for ordering a person toward himself: for while he is rightly ordered toward God and toward his neighbor, he is also ordered toward himself. The difference, however, is this: the disposition that makes one fit to perform his duty to God and his neighbor pertains to his perfection; but he must also perform those same duties both to his neighbor and to himself — though not to God and himself [in the same way].
6. But because the manner in which duties are to be exercised toward our neighbor involves regard and affection for their good, this same virtue is called charity toward our neighbor. Matthew 22:29 [sic: Matthew 22:39]. Mark 12:31.
7. In this charity there is always love of union, of delight, and of goodwill — as in the love that is toward God. But there is also frequently added the consideration of mercy, when the misery of our neighbor is regarded, which has no place in our charity toward God.
8. But this bond of justice and this affection of charity ought always to flow from and be derived from religion toward God. For since religion gives supreme honor to God, it causes obedience to be rendered to his will in those things that immediately concern creatures as well. Hence all who neglect their duty toward others are said not to honor God, but rather to despise him. 1 Samuel 2:30. Likewise, charity toward God that is contained in religion naturally produces charity toward others, insofar as they are in some measure partakers of the image of God — whence

Thus we are said to love God in men, and men in God — which is one reason for the phrase “beloved in the Lord.”

9. Hence nothing that is contrary to religion can properly be owed to any man. Acts 4:19 & 5:29: Whether it is right in the sight of God to obey you rather than God, judge for yourselves: we must obey God rather than men.
10. Hence also the truth of religion cannot stand alongside the neglect of justice and charity toward our neighbor. James 1:27: Religious worship, pure and undefiled before God and the Father, is this: to visit orphans and widows in their affliction. 1 John 4:20–21: If anyone says, “I love God,” and hates his brother, he is a liar. This commandment we have from God: that whoever loves God must also love his brother.
11. Hence, finally, religion is best proved and tested by justice, according to the frequent usage of Scripture — though this argument serves far more certainly for negation than for affirmation, if it is understood of the outward works and offices of justice. For such works of justice may sometimes be present where true religion is absent; but where true religion is present, they cannot be wholly absent.
12. By the same reasoning, unjust works argue more strongly that a man is ungodly than just works argue that he is godly: thus the works of the flesh are said to be manifest (Galatians 5:19), which is not affirmed of the fruits of the Spirit (verse 12).
13. The ordering of this charity is as follows: God is first and chiefly to be loved by charity, and so serves as, in a sense, the formal ground of charity toward our neighbor. Next after God we are bound to love ourselves — that is, with that charity which regards true blessedness. For in loving God himself with the love of union, we love ourselves immediately with that highest charity which regards our spiritual blessedness. We ought to love others, whom we would have share in the same good, as it were secondarily. Moreover, others may be deprived of this blessedness without any fault of ours, but we ourselves cannot be — therefore we are more bound to will and

14. Hence it is that love of ourselves has the force of a rule or measure for the love of others: Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.
15. Hence it is never lawful to commit any sin for the sake of another, even if the offense may seem small and the benefit sought for another may appear to be a supreme good — for whoever knowingly and willingly sins hates his own soul. Proverbs 8:36 & 29:24: He that sins against me does violence to his own soul. He that is a partner with a thief hates himself, and he that, hearing a curse, does not disclose it.
16. Among other men, none who is capable of blessedness ought to be wholly excluded from the embrace of our charity; for if we love God above all things, no enmities will so far prevail with us as to prevent us from loving even our enemies for God’s sake. Matthew 5:39; Romans 12:17; 1 Thessalonians 5:15; 1 Peter 3:9.
17. But among men, those are to be loved more than others who stand nearer to God, and in God to ourselves. Galatians 6:10: Let us do good to all, but especially to the household of faith.
18. But because those who believe are more closely united both to God and to us spiritually than those who do not yet believe, they are therefore also to be more dearly loved.
19. Yet this must be understood as referring to the present time and to the immediate affection; for we may will the same good to certain others as much or even more in the time to come, when the grace of God and faith shall come between — in which sense the Apostle’s affection concerning the Israelites is to be understood. Romans 9:3.
20. If among those who are to be loved there is no apparent disparity, either in respect of God or in respect of ourselves, then they are to be loved equally.
21. But if any apparent disparity appears — whether in their nearness to God or to ourselves — then the one who exceeds in any nearness is to be more greatly loved. That is, when we cannot exercise the act of our love equally toward all, we are more bound to bestow our love on those whom God has commended to us by some special nearness or communion, rather than on

others. Therefore, although we ought equally to will the salvation of others, yet the exercise and care of this will is owed chiefly to those who are closely joined to us in some special respect — just as a soldier, though he ought to wish well to all his fellow soldiers, is bound to take the greatest care of those in his own company who stand next to him in the same rank. This is evident in the example of Paul, who desired the conversion of the Israelites more fervently than that of other nations, and gives as one reason for this that they were his brothers and kinsmen according to the flesh. Romans 9:3.

22. Yet in this prerogative of charity we must wish to those near to us those good things that belong to the kind of bond by which they are near to us: spiritual good things to those who are most closely joined to us spiritually, and natural good things to those with whom we share a natural closeness — not that these kinds of good things are to be separated from one another in our desires, but because the very nature of the connection is, as it were, a signal from God by which he stirs us up to bestow our efforts chiefly in this or that kind.
23. Hence it follows, first, that blood relations, ceteris paribus, are to be loved more than strangers in matters pertaining to the goods of this life; and among those who are near in blood, the nearest are to be loved the most.
24. Secondly, that a close friend is to be loved more than an ordinary blood kinsman, at least in matters pertaining to the common duties of this life, because friendship may be such that it creates a closer bond than consanguinity considered by itself. Proverbs 18:24: For a friend is nearer than a brother.
25. Thirdly, that parents are to be loved more than any friend, because the closeness of parents is greater than that of friends with respect to the communication of those things most intimate to us. 1 Timothy 5:4: If any widow have children or grandchildren, let them first learn to show piety toward their own household and to repay their parents, for this is honest and acceptable in the sight of God.

26. Fourthly, that parents are to be loved more than children in those good things that ought to flow from effect to cause — such as honor, esteem, reverence, thankfulness, and the like. But children are to be loved more than parents in those things that flow from cause to effect — such as provision, advancement, and care for their welfare.
27. Fifthly, that husbands and wives are to be loved more than parents or children in those things pertaining to the society and union of this life; for that is the greatest closeness, of which it is said that they shall be one flesh. Genesis 2:24: Therefore shall a man leave his father and mother and shall cleave to his wife, and they shall be one flesh. Matthew 19:5.
28. Sixthly, that those who have done well by us are to be loved more than others, and among these, those who have communicated spiritual good things to us are to be loved most: let him who is taught in the word share all good things with his teacher. Galatians 6:6.
29. Seventhly, that a community or whole society is to be loved more than any single member of it, because the bond of a part with the whole is greater than its bond with another part; and therefore a prince whose life and safety is necessary or most profitable for the common good is to be loved more than any or even many of the common people — indeed more than ourselves in temporal things. 2 Samuel 21:17: You shall go out no more with us to battle, lest you quench the light of Israel. Lamentations 4:20.
30. There are two acts of charity toward our neighbor: prayer for his good, and the working of it. Matthew 5:44: Love your enemies, bless those who curse you, do good to those who hate you, and pray for those who hurt you and persecute you.
31. This prayer, insofar as it concerns the honor of God, belongs to religion under the first table; but insofar as it concerns the good of our neighbor, it belongs to justice and charity toward our neighbor under the second table.
32. We must pray for all those good things which religion commands us to wish for our neighbor, whether they be spiritual or bodily.
33. In

33. Included in this prayer is not only petition but also thanksgiving, whereby we praise God for the good things he has bestowed on our neighbors. Romans 1:8–10.
34. Opposed to this praying is imprecation, which tends toward the harm of our neighbor and is called cursing.
35. Working good toward our neighbor is an endeavor directed at him and tending to his good; hence it is also called a good deed. Matthew 5:44. And [it is called] love in deed. 1 John 3:18.
36. This working is distinguished from praying, because although prayer is also an endeavor tending to the good of our neighbor, it is not immediately exercised upon our neighbor but is directed toward God.
37. Yet to this working must be referred those endeavors which are exercised upon other creatures for our neighbor’s sake; for in those cases our actions have the same kind of efficiency as if they were exercised immediately upon our neighbor himself.
38. Now this endeavor is either by moral persuasion or by real effecting.
39. An endeavor of moral persuasion consists in setting forth good to be performed, with arguments by which a person may be stirred up to it.
40. And this is accomplished by admonition and good example.
41. Admonition is taken generally for any warning given by words, whether to procure and bring about good for our neighbor or to drive away and make up for any harm.
42. It therefore includes our duty to teach and admonish (Colossians 3:16); to watch over others so that we may spur them on to love and good works (Hebrews 10:24); to exhort them daily (Hebrews 3:13); to comfort them in sorrow and grief (1 Thessalonians 4:18); and to correct them in a brotherly manner if they are overtaken by some offense. Galatians 6:1. Revelation 19:17.
43. But this brotherly correction is to be used when we know with certainty that the evil to be corrected has been committed, when there is hope of some fruit or good to follow from our correction,

[whether it tends toward the recovery of one who has] fallen, or toward preserving others from falling into the same sin; and lastly, when there is a fitting opportunity with respect to time, person, and circumstances.

44. Opposed to this admonition is consent or communion with others in their sins. Ephesians 5:7, 11.
45. One is said to be a partaker of another’s sin in nine ways, which are set down in Latin thus:

Iussio, consilium, consensus, palpa, recursus, Participans, mutans, non obstans, non manifestans.

That is, in summary: consent is given to sinners by counseling, defending, helping, permitting when we could hinder, and by holding our peace when we might profitably speak. Romans 1:32.

46. Good example is a representation of a good work whereby others may be stirred up to perform the like. 1 Timothy 4:12. Titus 2:4, 7. Matthew 5:16. 1 Peter 2:12.
47. Opposed to good example is scandal. 1 Corinthians 10:32. Give no offense to the Jews, to the Gentiles, nor to the Church of God.
48. A scandal is a representation of an evil work whereby others may either be stirred up to sin (whence it is called πρόσκομμα, or a cause of stumbling) or be hindered or slackened from doing good (whence it is called ἀσθένεια, or a cause of weakening); and that is properly called a scandal. 1 Corinthians 8:9, 10. Take heed that your liberty does not become an occasion of stumbling to the weak, etc. Romans 14:21. [Anything] in which your brother stumbles, or is offended, or is made weak.
49. In every evil work that is made known to others there is the character of a scandal. Matthew 18:6, 7, 8. Whoever shall be an offense. If your hand, foot, or eye causes you to offend. If your brother sins against you.
50. There is also sometimes a scandal in a work that is lawful in itself, if it is not expedient in regard to others. 1 Corinthians 8:13. If my meat offends my brother, I will never eat flesh, lest I offend my brother.
51. But an indifferent thing is said to be expedient or not expedient when, all circumstances considered, it does or does not make for the glory of God and the edification of our neighbor.
52. There is no human authority that can make that action law-

lawful, by which a scandal is given to our neighbor.

53. A scandal is said to be given in the following cases: either when some manifest sin is committed, or at least something is done that has every appearance of sin and becomes known to others; or when something is rashly done that is not required by God’s command and yet brings spiritual harm to others — and still more so when the very purpose of the action is to lead our neighbor into sin or to trouble him.
54. But if offense arises not from the nature of our action but from the sheer malice of others, it is called an offense taken — as in the case of the Pharisees — and this is not our sin but the sin of those who take offense. Matthew 15:12–14: Knowest thou not that the Pharisees were offended at that saying? Let them alone: they be blind leaders of the blind.
55. But although this offense taken cannot be avoided by us, an offense given both can and ought to be avoided. For God never lays upon his [people] a necessity of giving offense.
56. That scandal by which one is said (metaphorically) to offend himself — that is, to provide himself with an occasion of sinning — is by analogy referred to [the category of] offense given.
57. A real effecting or procuring of our neighbor’s good is when we ourselves perform something that by its own nature tends to our neighbor’s good, without any intervening action on his part. Hebrews 13:16: To do good and to distribute forget not.
58. But although all acts of justice ought to have charity joined to them, there are some in which justice shines forth more prominently, and others in which charity more clearly governs.
59. From this arises the distinction by which some duties are said to belong to justice strictly taken, and others to charity — of which difference and formal distribution Christ himself is the author. Luke 11:42: Ye pass by judgment and the love of God.
60. Those are acts of justice which involve the consideration of a debt and equality in relation to others.
61. Those are acts of charity whereby the good of another is regarded beyond our debt.
62. The duties of justice take precedence, and bind more strictly, than those which belong to charity.
63. Hence

63. Hence we are more bound to pay our debts than to give anything of our own; and one who has wronged another is more bound to seek reconciliation than the one who was wronged.
64. In many matters there is a twofold consideration of justice: one that regards the proximate end and the letter of the binding law, which is called justice in the strictest sense; and another that regards the remote end and the reason of the law, which is called equity or epieikeia.
65. Justice of this kind has two parts: one that gives to each person what is his own, called distributive justice; and another that restores to each person what is his own, which may be called emendative justice.
66. Distributive justice cannot be rightly exercised without a sound judgment of things and persons, and a fitting comparison of things with things and persons with persons, from which arises the proportion they call geometrical.
67. Opposed to distributive justice is the acceptance of persons, whereby one is preferred over another in the distribution of due good without just cause.
68. Emendative justice is either commutative or corrective.
69. Commutative justice is the equality of what is given and what is received.
70. Corrective justice presupposes some injustice, and it is either civil or criminal.
71. Civil [corrective justice] chiefly corrects the injustice of the cause.
72. Criminal [corrective justice] chiefly corrects the injustice of the person.
73. To corrective justice belong revenge and restitution.
74. Revenge is an act of corrective justice whereby punishment is inflicted on one who has violated justice.
75. The end of revenge ought to be the amendment or restraint of the offender, quietness and admonition to others, and thereby the preservation of justice and the honor of God. Deuteronomy 13:11; 17:13; 19:20; 21:21: That all Israel may hear, and fear, and do no such iniquity in the midst of thee.
76. Restitution is an act of corrective justice whereby another is restored to possession of what is his own, of which he was unjustly deprived.
77. Hence

77. Hence an action that gives rise to an obligation of restitution must be contrary to justice strictly understood, and not merely contrary to charity.
78. To this injustice, injury is opposed.
79. To charity is opposed ill will, whether it be formal — arising from a direct intention — or virtual, [imputed] by interpretation.
80. To this ill will belongs unjust discord, which, if it breaks forth into separation — especially in matters pertaining to religion — it is properly called Schism.